Proper English Pronunciation

This section explains the relationship between Offbeat Count and phonology, and teaches the appropriate pronunciation method for performing Offbeat Count. If you focus only on the pronunciation and rhythm used when counting numbers in English to a beat and master them perfectly, your overall English speaking and listening ability will become complete. This training method also greatly improves groove ability in music such as jazz.

The Importance of Rhythm Practice in English

The knowledge of English pronunciation taught in Japanese English education is clearly insufficient. Here I will focus specifically on the missing knowledge and explain it in concentrated form.

When learning English, you should prioritize learning the differences between Japanese and English pronunciation above everything else. Even if you do not yet understand the meaning of English, creating a state in which you can hear English first and then studying the language dramatically improves the effectiveness of all later English study.

If you can hear English pronunciation, all English knowledge is acquired naturally just by casually being exposed to English information. That is because, beginning with Sesame Street, there are countless English learning materials available as long as you can hear English. Whether you are listening to music, watching movies, casually browsing the internet, letting time melt away while watching YouTube, or simply lying around and scrolling through X/Twitter, English knowledge keeps accumulating.

This may sound wonderful. You may think that nothing so dreamlike could possibly be true.

But if you consider the opposite situation, it is disastrous: no matter how much you study, if you cannot hear English pronunciation, none of it means anything.

No matter how many English words you memorize, you cannot even hear the words right in front of you.

No matter how much English grammar you study, you cannot even notice the grammar right in front of you.

No matter how much long-form reading practice you do, you cannot even watch a movie and understand it.

No matter how much pronunciation practice you do, you cannot hear the response when someone answers you back.

Japanese is part of an ideographic writing culture. It is a very unusual language, globally speaking, in which writing floats free from pronunciation.

English, however, is part of a phonographic writing culture. Pronunciation and meaning are closely bound together, and unless pronunciation is understood, meaning cannot be understood either.

No matter how much English knowledge you study while remaining unable to grasp pronunciation, it only demands endless time and effort and produces no meaningful result.

Prioritize pronunciation training above every other kind of study.

What Japanese people cannot understand is not pronunciation, but rhythm.

Japanese is a highly unusual language, even globally, in that its vowels are longer than its consonants.

That is why the consonants must be made longer than the vowels.

And what happens then is that it collides with the dilemma of Japanese listeners, who cannot hear offbeats.

In other words, what is needed is not pronunciation practice but rhythm training.

English Pronunciation Changes

English has no official standard language. Russian, French, and German have government institutions that define the national standard language. English, however, has no such official institution that establishes a standard. Instead, there are several influential institutions that propose forms of “standard English,” but they do not have coercive authority.

In other words, English has many dialects. And that means that the more accurately you learn “correct” English pronunciation, the harder English can become to hear. For beginners, this is the first major barrier they run into.

The only way to deal with this is to acquire knowledge of accent and dialect variation from the very beginning of learning English. That may sound difficult, but in fact the rules of English accent variation have been studied very thoroughly and can be summarized compactly.

Jazz rhythm is strongly connected to Southern U.S. dialects. And the variety called AAVE, “Black English,” has an especially deep connection to jazz rhythm. Learning English pronunciation is important for learning jazz, but learning these two varieties in particular, Southern American English and AAVE, is extremely important.

Here we will study, in sequence, the pronunciations necessary for understanding both standard English and the many English dialects that exist.

Vowels Found Across English Dialects

Monophthongs

IPA	Example	Tongue Position	Description
/i/	(beat)	high, front	Tense and farther forward than Japanese ii; lips spread sideways.
/ɪ/	(bit)	high, front	An i-like vowel but relaxed; between Japanese i and e, and short.
/ɛ/	(bet)	middle, front	Lower and more open than Japanese e; lips spread.
/æ/	(bat)	low, front	Open widely; between a and e. Not found in Japanese.
/ɑ/	(father)	low, back	A back a made deeper in the throat, with relatively spread lips.
/ɔ/	(thought)	middle, back	A lightly rounded “aw.” In many American dialects it merges with /ɑ/.
/ʊ/	(book)	high, back	Relaxed; between Japanese u and o, with slight rounding.
/u/	(boot)	high, back	Tense; more strongly rounded and farther back than Japanese uu.
/ʌ/	(strut)	central, short	Between a and o, central and short. Not found in Japanese.
/ə/	(sofa)		Unstressed central vowel called schwa. Short, weak, and indistinct.
/ɝ/	(bird)		Stressed r-colored vowel. The tongue retracts slightly into an /r/-like shape.
/ɚ/	(butter)		Unstressed r-colored vowel. Completely unlike Japanese a and often coordinated with a flap.

Diphthongs (Glides)

IPA	Example	Movement	Description
/eɪ/	(bait)	/e/ -> /ɪ/	A short glide; the second half is shorter than Japanese ei.
/oʊ/	(goat)	/o/ -> /ʊ/	Shorter in the second half than Japanese ou, while keeping lip rounding.
/aɪ/	(price)	/a/ -> /ɪ/	Begin low with a wide opening.
/aʊ/	(mouth)	/a/ -> /ʊ/	Round the lips in the second half.
/ɔɪ/	(choice)	/ɔ/ -> /ɪ/	Begins with a somewhat rounded o quality.

r-Colored Combinations

IPA	Example	Movement	Description
/ɪɚ/	(near)	/ɪ/ -> /ɚ/	A single unit of vowel + [ɚ]. It becomes r-colored at the end without the tongue tip making contact.
/ɛɚ/	(square)	/ɛ/ -> /ɚ/	Keep the initial vowel quality and add r-coloring at the end.
/ʊɚ/	(cure)	/ʊ/ -> /ɚ/	Moves from a short u into r-coloring. Some words vary, such as /kjʊr/.
/ɔɚ/	(north)	/ɔ/ -> /ɚ/	Begins with a rounded o and then becomes r-colored. Large dialect differences.
/ɑɚ/	(start)	/ɑ/ -> /ɚ/	Begins with a broad a and then becomes r-colored.

Consonants Found Across English Dialects

Plosives

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region
/p/	pin, cap	voiceless bilabial plosive	Produced by closing both lips and releasing them; strongly aspirated word-initially.	General
/b/	bin, cab	voiced bilabial plosive	Same articulation as /p/, but with vocal-fold vibration.	General
/t/	two, cat	voiceless alveolar plosive	Aspirated word-initially; unaspirated after /s/, as in spin.	General
/d/	do, ad	voiced alveolar plosive	The voiced counterpart of /t/.	General
[ɾ]	water [ˈwɔɾɚ], ladder [ˈlæɾɚ]	alveolar tap intervocalic allophone	/t, d/ are realized as a single-beat tap between vowels or across weak-strong boundaries. Standard in GA.	General American, AAVE, and widely in other dialects
/k/	key, back	voiceless velar plosive	Aspirated word-initially; unaspirated after /s/, as in ski.	General
/g/	go, bag	voiced velar plosive	The voiced counterpart of /k/.	General
[ʔ]	bo[ʔ]le ≈ bottle	voiceless glottal stop	T-glottalization: /t/ is replaced by [ʔ].	Cockney, Estuary English, MLE; variably before consonants or in codas in some U.S. speech; also some AAVE/GA
[ʈ]	thirty -> [ˈθʌʈi]	voiceless retroflex plosive	An allophone in which /t/ is realized with retroflex articulation.	Irish English Indian English
[ɖ]	ladder -> [ˈlæɖə]	voiced retroflex plosive	An allophone in which /d/ is realized with retroflex articulation.	Irish English Indian English
[ʔt]	football -> [ˈfʊʔt.bɔːl]	glottally reinforced plosive cluster	Word-final or pre-consonantal /t/ and /p/ are coarticulated with a glottal closure [ʔ].	Scottish English Northern English
[ʔp]	help please -> [ˈhɛʔp pliːz]	glottally reinforced plosive cluster	Word-final or pre-consonantal /t/ and /p/ are coarticulated with a glottal closure [ʔ].	Scottish English Northern English
[k͡p]	akpa “bag” (loan)	voiceless labial-velar plosive (coarticulated)	Simultaneous bilabial and velar closure, released voicelessly. Not native to English, but found in loanwords and proper names in West African English and creoles.	West African English, Nigerian Pidgin, and related varieties
[ɡ͡b]	agbada (name)	voiced labial-velar plosive (coarticulated)	Simultaneous bilabial and velar closure, released with voicing. Not native to English, but found in loanwords and proper names in West African English and creoles.	West African English, Nigerian Pidgin, and related varieties
[q]	— (loanwords, Gaelic influence)	voiceless uvular plosive	An extremely rare pronunciation found in contact dialects. It is produced by closing the back of the tongue against the uvula and releasing it voicelessly.	Scottish English (Hebrides and similar areas)

Affricates

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region
/tʃ/	chin, match	voiceless postalveolar affricate	The sound written ch, formed by integrating /t/ + /ʃ/.	General
/dʒ/	jam, badge	voiced postalveolar affricate	The sound written j, formed by integrating /d/ + /ʒ/.	General
[t͡ʃ] (< /tj/)	tune -> [t͡ʃ]une	derived affricate	Yod-coalescence (/tj/ -> [t͡ʃ]).	British English, especially Cockney
[d͡ʒ] (< /dj/)	duty -> [d͡ʒ]uty	derived affricate	/dj/ -> [d͡ʒ].	British English, especially Cockney
/ts/	tsunami, pizza	voiceless alveolar affricate	Found in loanwords; may also become strongly affricated word-finally, as in cats -> [kats].	Loanwords in general Yorkshire and Northern English
/dz/	kids, adze	voiced alveolar affricate	Found in loanwords, and where final -s becomes [dz] after a voiced consonant.	Loanwords in general some British and American speech
[t͡ɕ]	Tuesday -> [ˈt͡ɕuːzdeɪ]	voiceless palatal affricate	An allophone in which /tʃ/ is palatalized before /j/.	Irish English Scottish English
[d͡ʑ]	duke -> [d͡ʑuːk]	voiced palatal affricate	An allophone in which /dʒ/ is palatalized before /j/.	Irish English Scottish English

Fricatives

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region
/f/	(fine)	voiceless labiodental fricative	Light contact between the upper teeth and lower lip.	General
/v/	(vine)	voiced labiodental fricative	/f/ plus vocal-fold vibration.	General
/θ/	(thin)	voiceless dental fricative	Not found in Japanese.	General
/ð/	(this)	voiced dental fricative	Same articulation as /θ/, but voiced.	General
/s/	(see)	voiceless alveolar fricative	Lips are kept relatively flat.	General
/z/	(zoo)	voiced alveolar fricative	The voiced counterpart of /s/.	General
/ʃ/	(she)	voiceless postalveolar fricative	The tongue is slightly farther back and the lips are lightly rounded.	General
/ʒ/	(measure)	voiced postalveolar fricative	Found mainly in loanwords; rare word-initially.	General
/h/	(hat)	voiceless glottal fricative	Air passes through using the mouth shape of the following vowel.	General, though h-dropping is frequent in some dialects
[x]	loch [lɔx], Bach	voiceless velar fricative	Produced by bringing the back of the tongue close to the velum.	Scottish English Irish English German/Hebrew loanwords
[ç]	hue [çuː], human [ˈçjuːmən]	voiceless palatal fricative	/h/ appears in palatalized form in environments like /hj/.	Conservative English pronunciation careful speech
[ɦ]	intervocalic ahead -> [aˈɦɛd]	voiced glottal fricative	/h/ becomes voiced between vowels.	Irish English Northern English
[ʍ]	which [ʍɪtʃ] ≠ witch [wɪtʃ]	voiceless labiovelar fricative	A reflex of /hw/; more fricative than /w/. Preserves the whine-wine contrast.	Scotland Ireland the American South some AAVE
[χ]	loch [lɔχ] (strong dialect)	voiceless uvular fricative	A fricative farther back than [x].	Scottish English under strong Gaelic influence
[β]	cabaña -> [kaˈβaɲa] (loan)	voiced bilabial fricative	Not native to English, but found in loanword pronunciation such as Spanish borrowings.	Loanword pronunciation
[ʁ]	— (loanwords, Gaelic influence)	voiced uvular fricative/approximant	An extremely rare pronunciation found in contact dialects, produced by bringing the back of the tongue near the uvula with voicing.	Scottish English (Hebrides and similar areas)

Nasals

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region
/m/	(me)	bilabial nasal	Produced with the mouth closed and resonance directed through the nose.	General
/n/	(no)	alveolar nasal	The tongue tip touches the alveolar ridge.	General
/ŋ/	(sing)	velar nasal	Produced with the back of the tongue against the velum. Does not occur word-initially.	General in AAVE, Southern English, and Cockney, -ing may change from [ŋ] to [n]
[ɱ]	comfort [ˈkʌɱfət]	labiodental nasal	An allophone in which /m/ becomes labiodental before /f/ or /v/.	General
[n̪]	tenth [tɛn̪θ]	dental nasal	An allophone in which /n/ becomes dental before a dental fricative.	General
[ɲ]	onion [ˈʌɲjən]	palatal nasal	An allophone in which /n/ becomes palatalized before /j/.	Some pronunciations, such as careful speech
[ŋg]	finger [ˈfɪŋgə]	nasal + velar plosive	A pronunciation that retains [g] after /ŋ/, contrasting with dialects that drop it, as in singer [ˈsɪŋə].	Northern English and some other dialects

Approximants

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region
/ɹ/	run [ɹʌn]	alveolar approximant	The tongue tip does not touch; it is distinct from Japanese ra-row [ɾ].	General Cockney is non-rhotic in codas and before consonants
/j/	yes [jɛs]	palatal approximant	The y sound; made by raising the front of the tongue.	General in some British speech it merges with /tj, dj/ via yod coalescence
/w/	we [wiː]	labial-velar approximant	Coordinated lip rounding + back-tongue raising.	General
[ʍ]	which [ʍɪtʃ] ≠ witch [wɪtʃ]	voiceless labial-velar approximant	A breathy reflex of /hw/. Preserves the whine-wine contrast.	Parts of the American South Scotland Ireland some AAVE
[ɻ]	red -> [ɻɛd] road -> [ɻoʊd] right -> [ɻaɪt]	retroflex approximant (retroflex R)	The tongue tip is curled back toward the palate, the well-known “retroflex R.”	North American English, General American, AAVE
[ɹ̈]	red -> [ɹ̈ɛd] road -> [ɹ̈oʊd] right -> [ɹ̈aɪt]	bunched R	An allophone of /r/ in which the center of the tongue is raised; an alternative to retroflex R.	North American English, especially the Midwest and GA
[w̥]	quit [kw̥ɪt]	voiceless /w/ allophone	/w/ becomes voiceless immediately after a voiceless plosive.	All dialects, as a context-dependent allophone

Lateral Approximants

IPA	Examples	Classification	Description	Region / Dialect
/l/	light [laɪt], fill [fɪl]	alveolar lateral approximant	“Light L” [l] tends to occur word-initially, while codas and pre-consonantal positions tend to be darker.	General
[ɫ]	—	dark L (velarized)	The back of the tongue is raised toward the velum. Typical word-finally and before consonants.	English in general, widely in American English
[w ~ ʊ̯ ~ o]	people -> [piːpo]	alternation	L-vocalization: /l/ in coda position changes into a glide or vowel-like sound.	Cockney, Estuary English, and some American dialects
[l̩]	bottle [ˈbɑːtl̩]	syllabic L	/l/ functions as a syllable nucleus, especially after alveolar plosives.	General American and English more broadly
light [l] only	—	dialectal trait	Keeps “light L” in all positions and does not darken it.	Irish English, Scottish English
[ɫˠ]	—	super-dark L (strong velarization/uvularization)	A darker realization than ordinary [ɫ], with stronger tongue-back raising and uvularization.	Broad London, Glasgow, and other urban dialects

List of English Dialects

English Name	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Description
General American	アメリカ英語	Amerika eigo	Standard pronunciation widely used across the United States. It has relatively little regional coloring and sounds neutral, like a news anchor accent.
New York City English	ニューヨーク英語	Nyūyōku eigo	Urban English centered in New York City. It features a raised /ɔ/ (as in coffee), a split /æ/ system (bad vs. bat), and distinctive intonation. Older speakers are often non-rhotic, while younger speakers are increasingly rhotic.
Jewish American English	ユダヤ系米国英語	Yudaya-kei Beikoku eigo	English associated with Jewish Americans. Its lexicon, discourse markers, and intonation show Yiddish and Hebrew influence. It overlaps with NYC English in some cases and varies greatly by region and community.
Southern American English	アメリカ南部方言	Amerika nanbu hōgen	English spoken in the American South. Older generations are often non-rhotic, and monophthongization of diphthongs and distinctive vowel shifts are common.
African American Vernacular English	アフリカ系米国英語/黒人英語	Afurika-kei Beikoku eigo/Kokujin eigo	A systematic variety that developed in African American communities. It is characterized by consonant-cluster reduction, habitual be, and a distinctive phonological system.
Boston English	ボストン英語	Bosuton eigo	A variety from eastern New England. It is known for non-rhoticity (“pahk the cah”), a fronted /a/ in car, intrusive /r/, and its own short /æ/ system.
Western American English	西部アメリカ英語	Seibu Amerika eigo	A relatively homogeneous variety spread across the western United States. The cot-caught merger is common.
Appalachian English	アパラチア英語	Aparachia eigo	A distinctive variety spoken in the Appalachian region. It is characterized by archaic vocabulary, the a-prefix (a-running), and strong vowel shifts.
Midwestern (Inland North) English	中西部（五大湖地方）英語	Chūseibu (Godaiko chihō) eigo	Spoken in the Great Lakes region, including Chicago, Detroit, and Buffalo. It is known for the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, though that pattern is receding among younger speakers.
Australian English	オーストラリア英語	Ōsutoraria eigo	The national variety of English in Australia. It is non-rhotic and has its own vowel changes while still showing influence from British English.
Canadian English	カナダ英語	Kanada eigo	English spoken in Canada. It remains rhotic and is close to GA, but has uniquely Canadian features such as raising in about [əˈbʌʊt].
Scottish English	スコットランド英語	Sukottorando eigo	Rhotic English spoken in Scotland, distinct from Scottish Gaelic. It preserves the contrast between [ʍ] and [w], retains tapped /r/, and has its own vowel system.
Irish English	アイルランド英語	Airurando eigo	English spoken in Ireland. It is generally rhotic and is characterized by TH-stopping (think → tink), monophthongized FACE/GOAT vowels, and sing-song intonation.
Northern English	北部英語（イングランド）	Hokubu eigo (Ingurando)	A broad label for non-southern dialects of England. It lacks the trap-bath split, and vowels in words like bus and cup are short.
Geordie (Newcastle English)	ジョーディー英語（ニューカッスル英語）	Jōdī eigo (Nyūkassuru eigo)	A distinctive Tyneside variety. It features unusual vowel realizations, rising intonation, and strong regional vocabulary.
Yorkshire English	ヨークシャー英語	Yōkushā eigo	A Yorkshire variety characterized by thee/thou pronouns, reduced definite articles (t’pub), and flat intonation.
Welsh English	ウェールズ英語	Wēruzu eigo	English spoken in Wales. It is characterized by sing-song intonation, clear /r/ pronunciation, and phonological influence from Welsh.
Received Pronunciation	容認発音英語	Yōnin hatsuon eigo	The traditional prestige pronunciation of Britain. It was once widespread, but now has fewer speakers.
Multicultural London English	多文化ロンドン英語	Tabunka Rondon eigo	A multiethnic variety developed in London. It combines features of Cockney and Estuary English with Caribbean, African, and South Asian influence.
Cockney	コックニー英語	Kokkunī eigo	A traditional working-class dialect rooted in East London. It is known for rhyming slang, h-dropping, T-glottalization, and non-rhoticity.
Estuary English	河口域英語/エスチュアリ英語	Kakōiki eigo/Esuchuari eigo	English centered around the Thames Estuary. It has features intermediate between RP and Cockney, including T-glottalization and non-rhoticity.
Indian English	インド英語	Indo eigo	English spoken in India. Influenced by local languages, it features retroflex plosives, mora-like rhythm, and distinctive intonation.
Singapore English (Singlish)	シンガポール英語（シングリッシュ）	Shingapōru eigo (Shingurisshu)	English spoken in Singapore. It shows Chinese and Malay influence, tone-like intonation, simplified tense/aspect, and code-switching.
New Zealand English	ニュージーランド英語	Nyūjīrando eigo	Close to Australian English, but with its own vowel shifts, as in fish and chips → [fʌʃ ənd ʧʌps].
East African English	東アフリカ英語	Higashi Afurika eigo	English spoken in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and nearby countries. It is generally rhotic and shows diphthong simplification, TH-stopping, consonant-cluster reduction, and mora-like rhythm, with strong influence from Swahili and other local languages.
West African English	西アフリカ英語	Nishi Afurika eigo	English spoken in Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and neighboring countries. It is often mora-like in rhythm, with TH-stopping (this → dis), reduction of final consonant clusters, clear /r/, and influence from tonal languages.
South African English	南アフリカ英語	Minami Afurika eigo	It has a distinctive vowel system, for example kit → [kət]. It also includes multiple subvarieties such as White South African English and Cape Flats English.

Abbreviations for English Dialects

English	Japanese	English Name	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)
GA	アメ般	General American	アメリカ英語	Amerika eigo
NYCAmE	アメNY	New York City English	ニューヨーク英語	Nyūyōku eigo
JewAmE	アメユ	Jewish American English	ユダヤ系米国英語	Yudaya-kei Beikoku eigo
SAmE	アメ南	Southern American English	アメリカ南部方言	Amerika nanbu hōgen
AAVE	アメ黒	African American Vernacular English	アフリカ系米国英語/黒人英語	Afurika-kei Beikoku eigo/Kokujin eigo
BostAmE	アメボス	Boston English	ボストン英語	Bosuton eigo
WAmE	アメ西	Western American English	西部アメリカ英語	Seibu Amerika eigo
AppAmE	アメアパ	Appalachian English	アパラチア英語	Aparachia eigo
MidwAmE	アメミド	Midwestern (Inland North) English	中西部（五大湖地方）英語	Chūseibu (Godaiko chihō) eigo
AusE	オス英	Australian English	オーストラリア英語	Ōsutoraria eigo
CanE	カナ英	Canadian English	カナダ英語	Kanada eigo
ScotE	スコ英	Scottish English	スコットランド英語	Sukottorando eigo
IreE	アイ英	Irish English	アイルランド英語	Airurando eigo
NEngE	北英	Northern English	英国北部英語（イングランド）	Hokubu eigo (Ingurando)
Geordie	ジョー英	Geordie (Newcastle English)	ジョーディー英語	Jōdī eigo
YorkE	ヨク英	Yorkshire English	ヨークシャー英語	Yōkushā eigo
WelshE	ウエ英	Welsh English	ウェールズ英語	Wēruzu eigo
RP	ブリ英	Received Pronunciation	容認発音英語	Yōnin hatsuon eigo
MLE	多英	Multicultural London English	多文化ロンドン英語	Tabunka Rondon eigo
CockneyE	コク英	Cockney	コックニー英語	Kokkunī eigo
EstuaryE	エス英	Estuary English	河口域英語/エスチュアリ英語	Kakōiki eigo/Esuchuari eigo
IndE	イン英	Indian English	インド英語	Indo eigo
SgE	シン英	Singapore English (Singlish)	シンガポール英語（シングリッシュ）	Shingapōru eigo (Shingurisshu)
NZE	ニュ英	New Zealand English	ニュージーランド英語	Nyūjīrando eigo
EAffE	東ア英	East African English	東アフリカ英語	Higashi Afurika eigo
WAffE	西ア英	West African English	西アフリカ英語	Nishi Afurika eigo
SAffE	南ア英	South African English	南アフリカ英語	Minami Afurika eigo

List of Dialectal Consonant Changes in English

English Name	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Sound Change (IPA)	Description
TH-fronting	THフロンティング	TH furontingu	/θ/ -> [f]	The voiceless dental fricative /θ/ is replaced by the voiceless labiodental fricative [f]. Example: thin -> [fɪn].
TH-stopping	THストッピング	TH sutoppingu	/ð/ -> [d]	The voiced dental fricative /ð/ changes to the voiced alveolar plosive [d]. Example: this -> [dɪs].
TH-fronting (voiced)	有声THフロンティング	Yūsei TH furontingu	/ð/ -> [v]	The voiced dental fricative /ð/ changes to the voiced labiodental fricative [v]. Example: brother -> [brʌvə].
T-glottalization	T声門化	T seimonka	/t/ -> [ʔ]	The voiceless alveolar plosive /t/ is replaced by the glottal stop [ʔ]. Example: butter -> [bʌʔə].
Flapping	フラッピング	Furappingu	/t, d/ -> [ɾ]	Intervocalic voiceless/voiced alveolar plosives /t, d/ are realized as the alveolar tap [ɾ]. Example: water -> [wɔɾə].
-ing dropping	-ing 脱落	-ing daraku	/ŋ/ -> [n]	Word-final velar nasal /ŋ/ changes to the alveolar nasal [n]. Example: walking -> [wɔːkɪn].
L-vocalization	Lヴォーカリゼーション	L vōkarizēshon	/l/ -> [w, o]	Syllable-final alveolar lateral approximant /l/ changes into a vowel-like sound such as [w] or [o]. Example: people -> [piːpo].
h-dropping	h脱落	h daraku	/h/ -> ∅	Word-initial glottal fricative /h/ is deleted. Example: house -> [aʊs].
Yod-coalescence	ヨッド合流	Yoddo gōryū	/tj, dj/ -> [tʃ, dʒ]	/tj/ and /dj/ change into the postalveolar affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ]. Example: tune -> [tʃuːn].
Yod-dropping	ヨッド脱落	Yoddo daraku	/juː/ -> [uː]	The palatal approximant /j/ in /juː/ is deleted. Example: new -> [nuː].
wh-w contrast	wh-wコントラスト	wh-w kontorasuto	/hw/ -> [ʍ]	The contrast between voiceless labiovelar approximant [ʍ] and voiced labiovelar approximant [w] is preserved. Example: which [ʍɪtʃ] ≠ witch [wɪtʃ].
Final cluster simplification	多重末子音脱落	Tajū matsushiin daraku	e.g. /-st/ -> /-s/	Word-final consonant clusters are simplified. Example: test -> [tɛs].
t-deletion	t脱落	t daraku	/nt/ -> [n]	The voiceless alveolar plosive /t/ after /n/ is deleted. Example: winter -> [wɪnə].
Linking r	リンキングr	Rinkingu r	∅ -> [ɹ] (word boundary)	The alveolar approximant [ɹ] is inserted between vowels across a word boundary. Example: law and order -> [lɔːɹ ənd ɔːdə].
Intrusive r	侵襲的R	Shinshūteki R	∅ -> [ɹ] (epenthetic)	The alveolar approximant [ɹ] is inserted where it is not underlyingly present. Example: idea of -> [aɪˈdɪəɹ əv].
Non-rhoticity	非R音声	Hi-R onsei	/ɹ/ -> ∅	The alveolar approximant /ɹ/ is not pronounced in syllable-final position. Example: car -> [kɑː].
Retroflex/bunched r	Rの反り舌/盛り舌	R no sorijita/morijita	(different [ɹ] types)	/r/ is realized either as a retroflex approximant (tongue tip curled back) or as a bunched approximant (tongue body raised).
Dentalization	歯音化	Shionka	/t, d, n/ -> [t̪, d̪, n̪]	Alveolar plosives/nasal /t, d, n/ are realized as dentals [t̪, d̪, n̪]. Example: tenth -> [tɛn̪θ].

Regional Matrix of Dialectal Consonant Changes in English

Dialect	TH-fronting	TH-stopping	Voiced TH-fronting	T-glottalization	Flapping	-ing dropping	L-vocalization	h-dropping	Yod-coalescence	Yod-dropping	wh-w contrast	Final cluster simplification	t-deletion	Linking r	Intrusive r	Non-rhoticity	Retroflex/ bunched r	Dentalization
GA				preC	O	informal			sandhi	O		informal	informal				var
NYCAmE				O	O	informal	codaL		O	var		informal	preC			older	var	before_th
JewAmE				O	O	informal	codaL		O	var		informal	preC			var	var	before_th
SAmE		var		preC	O	O	codaL		sandhi	O	wholder	informal	informal			older	retroflex	before_th
AAVE	final	O	final	preC	O	O	var		sandhi	aave_yod	wholder	O	O				var	before_th
BostAmE				preC	O	informal			var	var		informal	preC	O	O	older	retroflex
WAmE				preC	O	informal			sandhi	O		informal	informal				var
AppAmE		var		preC	O	O	codaL		sandhi	O	older	colloquial	preC				var
MidwAmE				preC	O	informal			sandhi	O		informal	informal				var
AusE	urban		urban	O	O	informal	O		O	O		colloquial	preC	O	O	O	var
CanE				preC	O	informal			sandhi	O		informal	informal				var
ScotE	glasgow		glasgow	O		informal				O	O	colloquial	preC				var	before_th
IreE		dublin	dublin	var	var	informal			var		O	colloquial	preC				var	O
NEngE	urban	var	urban	O		informal	var	var	O	O	older	colloquial	preC	O	O	O		O
Geordie	urban	var	urban	var		informal	var	var	O	O	older	colloquial	preC	O	O	O		O
YorkE	urban	var	urban	O		informal	var	var	O	O	older	colloquial	preC	O	O	O		O
WelshE	urban			var		informal	var	var	var		O	colloquial	preC	var	var	var		before_th
RP				preC		informal	younger		O		older	colloquial	preC	O	O	O		before_th
MLE	O	O	O	O		informal	O	var	O	var		O	preC	O	O	O		before_th
Cockney	O	O	O	O		O	O	O	O	var		O	O	O	O	O		O
Estuary	O	var	var	O		informal	O	var	O	var		O	O	O	O	O		before_th
IndE		O										epenth						O
SgE		O										O	colloquial	O	O	O
NZE	urban		urban	O	O	informal	O		O	var		colloquial	preC	O	O	O
EAffE		O										O	colloquial
WAffE		O										O	colloquial
SAffE				O		informal	O		O	var		colloquial	preC	O	O	O		before_th

Code	Japanese Shorthand	Romaji (Hepburn)	Description
O	あり	Ari	Present or clearly attested as a recognized feature in the dialect.
final	末子音限定	Matsushiin gentei	TH-fronting occurs mainly in word-final consonants (e.g., mouth -> mouf).
preC	子音前限定	Shiinzen gentei	Restricted to pre-consonantal or word-final position (e.g., button -> [bʌʔn̩]).
informal	タメ口	Tameguchi	Appears in informal or everyday speech, but is not necessarily fully systematic.
sandhi	連音	Ren’on	Occurs mainly in connected speech / sandhi environments (e.g., did you -> dɪdʒu).
var	可変	Kahen	Variable by region, group, or style, and not a stable hallmark.
older	老化	Rōka	Preserved mainly by older speakers, but receding among younger generations.
urban	都市若者	Toshi wakamono	An innovation typical of urban youth, not broadly spread to rural speakers.
dublin	ダブリン	Daburin	Dublin English shows more TH-stopping/fronting than other varieties in Ireland.
glasgow	グラスゴー	Gurasugō	Glasgow English shows more prominent TH-fronting than other Scottish dialects.
wholder	wh保持	wh hoji	The wh-w contrast ([ʍ] vs [w]) is preserved among older Southern speakers and some AAVE speakers, but lost elsewhere.
codaL	末子音L化	Matsushiin L-ka	L-vocalization occurs mainly in coda (syllable-final) position.
epenth	母音挿入傾向	Boin sōnyū keikō	There is a tendency to prefer epenthesis (vowel insertion) rather than deletion in resolving consonant clusters.
aave_yod	アメ黒ヨッド	Ame-kuro yoddo	In some AAVE varieties, the reduction /juː -> uː/ occurs only in limited contexts.
younger	若年	Jakunen	Found more often among younger speakers (e.g., younger RP speakers under Estuary influence).
colloquial	口語	Kōgo	Cluster simplification or /t/-deletion occurs only in fast or colloquial speech.
retroflex	反り舌	Sorijita	R is realized with a retroflex articulation when the relevant postvocalic or intrusive R is pronounced.
before_th	歯音同化	Shion dōka	/t d n l/ are dentalized before /θ ð/ (regressive assimilation).

Full List of IPA Places of Articulation

English Name	Japanese Name	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)	IPA Examples	Explanation
Bilabial	両唇音	りょうしんおん	Ryōshin on	[p, b, m, ɸ, β]	Consonants articulated by closing or bringing together both lips.
Labiodental	唇歯音	しんしおん	Shinshi on	[f, v, ɱ, ʋ]	Consonants articulated by placing the lower lip against the upper teeth.
Dental	歯音	はおん	Ha on	[t̪, d̪, n̪, θ, ð]	Consonants articulated with the tongue tip or blade against the teeth.
Alveolar	歯茎音	しけいおん	Shikei on	[t, d, n, s, z, l, ɹ]	Consonants articulated with the tongue tip or blade at the alveolar ridge.
Postalveolar	後部歯茎音	こうぶしけいおん	Kōbu shikei on	[ʃ, ʒ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ]	Consonants articulated with the tongue blade just behind the alveolar ridge.
Retroflex	反舌音	はんぜつおん	Hanzetsu on	[ʈ, ɖ, ɳ, ʂ, ʐ, ɭ, ɽ]	Consonants articulated by curling the tongue tip back toward the palate, around the alveolar area.
Palatal	硬口蓋音	こうこうがいおん	Kōkōgai on	[c, ɟ, ɲ, j, ç, ʝ]	Consonants articulated by bringing the front of the tongue close to the hard palate.
Velar	軟口蓋音	なんこうがいおん	Nankōgai on	[k, g, ŋ, x, ɣ, ɰ]	Consonants articulated by touching or approaching the soft palate with the back of the tongue.
Uvular	口蓋垂音	こうがいすいおん	Kōgaisui on	[q, ɢ, χ, ʁ, ʀ, ɴ]	Consonants articulated by touching or approaching the uvula with the back of the tongue.
Pharyngeal	咽頭音	いんとうおん	Intō on	[ħ, ʕ]	Consonants articulated by bringing the tongue root toward the pharyngeal wall.
Epiglottal	喉頭蓋音	こうとうがいおん	Kōtōgai on	[ʡ, ʜ, ʢ]	Consonants articulated by bringing the epiglottis into contact with or near the pharyngeal wall.
Glottal	声門音	せいもんおん	Seimon on	[ʔ, h, ɦ]	Consonants articulated at the glottis by opening, closing, or constricting the vocal folds.

Full List of IPA Manners of Articulation

English Name	Japanese Name	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)	IPA Examples	Explanation
Plosive (Stop)	破裂音	はれつおん	Haretsuon	[p, b, t, d, k, g, q, ɢ, ʔ]	Consonants produced by completely closing the articulators and then releasing them.
Nasal	鼻音	びおん	Bion	[m, n, ɲ, ŋ, ɴ]	Consonants produced by closing the oral cavity and sending airflow through the nose.
Trill	ふるえ音	ふるえおん	Furue on	[r, ʀ, ʙ]	Consonants produced by repeated vibration of an articulator.
Tap / Flap	はじき音	はじきおん	Hajiki on	[ɾ, ɽ]	Consonants produced by a single brief contact of an articulator.
Fricative	摩擦音	まさつおん	Masatsu on	[f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, x, ɣ, χ, ʁ, h, ɦ, ħ, ʕ]	Consonants produced when airflow passes through a narrow constriction and creates friction.
Lateral Fricative	側面摩擦音	そくめんまさつおん	Sokumen masatsu on	[ɬ, ɮ]	Consonants produced by blocking the center of the tongue and letting turbulent airflow pass along the sides.
Approximant	接近音	せっきんおん	Sekkin on	[j, w, ɹ, ɰ]	Consonants in which the articulators approach each other but not closely enough to create friction.
Lateral Approximant	側面接近音	そくめんせっきんおん	Sokumen sekkin on	[l, ʎ, ʟ]	Consonants produced by blocking the center of the tongue and letting airflow pass along the sides without friction.
Affricate (combined)	破擦音	はさつおん	Hasatsu on	[t͡s, d͡z, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ]	Consonants produced as a stop released directly into a fricative.

1. Plosives

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
p	voiceless bilabial plosive	無声両唇破裂音	むせいりょうしんはれつおん	Musei ryōshin haretsuon
b	voiced bilabial plosive	有声両唇破裂音	ゆうせいりょうしんはれつおん	Yūsei ryōshin haretsuon
t	voiceless alveolar plosive	無声歯茎破裂音	むせいしけいはれつおん	Musei shikei haretsuon
d	voiced alveolar plosive	有声歯茎破裂音	ゆうせいしけいはれつおん	Yūsei shikei haretsuon
ʈ	voiceless retroflex plosive	無声反り舌破裂音	むせいそりじたはれつおん	Musei sorijita haretsuon
ɖ	voiced retroflex plosive	有声反り舌破裂音	ゆうせいそりじたはれつおん	Yūsei sorijita haretsuon
c	voiceless palatal plosive	無声硬口蓋破裂音	むせいこうこうがいはれつおん	Musei kōkōgai haretsuon
ɟ	voiced palatal plosive	有声硬口蓋破裂音	ゆうせいこうこうがいはれつおん	Yūsei kōkōgai haretsuon
k	voiceless velar plosive	無声軟口蓋破裂音	むせいなんこうがいはれつおん	Musei nankōgai haretsuon
g	voiced velar plosive	有声軟口蓋破裂音	ゆうせいなんこうがいはれつおん	Yūsei nankōgai haretsuon
q	voiceless uvular plosive	無声口蓋垂破裂音	むせいこうがいすいはれつおん	Musei kōgaisui haretsuon
ɢ	voiced uvular plosive	有声口蓋垂破裂音	ゆうせいこうがいすいはれつおん	Yūsei kōgaisui haretsuon
ʡ	voiceless epiglottal plosive	無声喉頭蓋破裂音	むせいこうとうがいはれつおん	Musei kōtōgai haretsuon
ʔ	glottal stop	声門閉鎖音	せいもんへいさおん	Seimon heisaon

2. Nasals

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
m	bilabial nasal	両唇鼻音	りょうしんびおん	Ryōshin bion
ɱ	labiodental nasal	唇歯鼻音	しんしびおん	Shinshi bion
n	alveolar nasal	歯茎鼻音	しけいびおん	Shikei bion
ɳ	retroflex nasal	反り舌鼻音	そりじたびおん	Sorijita bion
ɲ	palatal nasal	硬口蓋鼻音	こうこうがいびおん	Kōkōgai bion
ŋ	velar nasal	軟口蓋鼻音	なんこうがいびおん	Nankōgai bion
ɴ	uvular nasal	口蓋垂鼻音	こうがいすいびおん	Kōgaisui bion

3. Trills

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
ʙ	bilabial trill	両唇ふるえ音	りょうしんふるえおん	Ryōshin furue on
r	alveolar trill	歯茎ふるえ音	しけいふるえおん	Shikei furue on
ʀ	uvular trill	口蓋垂ふるえ音	こうがいすいふるえおん	Kōgaisui furue on

4. Taps/Flaps

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
ⱱ	labiodental flap	唇歯はじき音	しんしはじきおん	Shinshi hajiki on
ɾ	alveolar tap/flap	歯茎はじき音	しけいはじきおん	Shikei hajiki on
ɽ	retroflex flap	反り舌はじき音	そりじたはじきおん	Sorijita hajiki on

5. Fricatives

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
ɸ	voiceless bilabial fricative	無声両唇摩擦音	むせいりょうしんまさつおん	Musei ryōshin masatsu on
β	voiced bilabial fricative	有声両唇摩擦音	ゆうせいりょうしんまさつおん	Yūsei ryōshin masatsu on
f	voiceless labiodental fricative	無声唇歯摩擦音	むせいしんしまさつおん	Musei shinshi masatsu on
v	voiced labiodental fricative	有声唇歯摩擦音	ゆうせいしんしまさつおん	Yūsei shinshi masatsu on
θ	voiceless dental fricative	無声歯摩擦音	むせいしまさつおん	Musei shi masatsu on
ð	voiced dental fricative	有声歯摩擦音	ゆうせいしまさつおん	Yūsei shi masatsu on
s	voiceless alveolar fricative	無声歯茎摩擦音	むせいしけいまさつおん	Musei shikei masatsu on
z	voiced alveolar fricative	有声歯茎摩擦音	ゆうせいしけいまさつおん	Yūsei shikei masatsu on
ʃ	voiceless postalveolar fricative	無声後部歯茎摩擦音	むせいこうぶしけいまさつおん	Musei kōbu shikei masatsu on
ʒ	voiced postalveolar fricative	有声後部歯茎摩擦音	ゆうせいこうぶしけいまさつおん	Yūsei kōbu shikei masatsu on
ʂ	voiceless retroflex fricative	無声反り舌摩擦音	むせいそりじたまさつおん	Musei sorijita masatsu on
ʐ	voiced retroflex fricative	有声反り舌摩擦音	ゆうせいそりじたまさつおん	Yūsei sorijita masatsu on
ç	voiceless palatal fricative	無声硬口蓋摩擦音	むせいこうこうがいまさつおん	Musei kōkōgai masatsu on
ʝ	voiced palatal fricative	有声硬口蓋摩擦音	ゆうせいこうこうがいまさつおん	Yūsei kōkōgai masatsu on
x	voiceless velar fricative	無声軟口蓋摩擦音	むせいなんこうがいまさつおん	Musei nankōgai masatsu on
ɣ	voiced velar fricative	有声軟口蓋摩擦音	ゆうせいなんこうがいまさつおん	Yūsei nankōgai masatsu on
χ	voiceless uvular fricative	無声口蓋垂摩擦音	むせいこうがいすいまさつおん	Musei kōgaisui masatsu on
ʁ	voiced uvular fricative	有声口蓋垂摩擦音	ゆうせいこうがいすいまさつおん	Yūsei kōgaisui masatsu on
ħ	voiceless pharyngeal fricative	無声咽頭摩擦音	むせいいんとうまさつおん	Musei intō masatsu on
ʕ	voiced pharyngeal fricative	有声咽頭摩擦音	ゆうせいいんとうまさつおん	Yūsei intō masatsu on
ʜ	voiceless epiglottal fricative	無声喉頭蓋摩擦音	むせいこうとうがいまさつおん	Musei kōtōgai masatsu on
ʢ	voiced epiglottal fricative	有声喉頭蓋摩擦音	ゆうせいこうとうがいまさつおん	Yūsei kōtōgai masatsu on
h	voiceless glottal fricative	無声声門摩擦音	むせいせいもんまさつおん	Musei seimon masatsu on
ɦ	voiced glottal fricative	有声声門摩擦音	ゆうせいせいもんまさつおん	Yūsei seimon masatsu on

6. Lateral Fricatives

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
ɬ	voiceless alveolar lateral fricative	無声歯茎側面摩擦音	むせいしけいそくめんまさつおん	Musei shikei sokumen masatsu on
ɮ	voiced alveolar lateral fricative	有声歯茎側面摩擦音	ゆうせいしけいそくめんまさつおん	Yūsei shikei sokumen masatsu on

7. Approximants

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
ʋ	labiodental approximant	唇歯接近音	しんしせっきんおん	Shinshi sekkin on
ɹ	alveolar approximant	歯茎接近音	しけいせっきんおん	Shikei sekkin on
ɻ	retroflex approximant	反り舌接近音	そりじたせっきんおん	Sorijita sekkin on
j	palatal approximant	硬口蓋接近音	こうこうがいせっきんおん	Kōkōgai sekkin on
ɰ	velar approximant	軟口蓋接近音	なんこうがいせっきんおん	Nankōgai sekkin on

8. Lateral Approximants

IPA	English Name	Japanese Translation	Kana	Romaji (Hepburn)
l	alveolar lateral approximant	歯茎側面接近音	しけいそくめんせっきんおん	Shikei sokumen sekkin on
ɭ	retroflex lateral approximant	反り舌側面接近音	そりじたそくめんせっきんおん	Sorijita sokumen sekkin on
ʎ	palatal lateral approximant	硬口蓋側面接近音	こうこうがいそくめんせっきんおん	Kōkōgai sokumen sekkin on
ʟ	velar lateral approximant	軟口蓋側面接近音	なんこうがいそくめんせっきんおん	Nankōgai sokumen sekkin on

(Hidden) SPE Notation for Representing Phonological Rules

There is a notation system called SPE notation that is used in phonology to express pronunciation rules.

In Japan, where phonological research has remained comparatively underdeveloped, SPE notation is almost never used.¹

1. Some specialist generative-phonology works do use SPE-style rules, but this guide targets general readers.

So here, instead of depending on bare SPE notation alone, I pair it with explicit translated labels.

SPE Notation	Japanese Label	Romaji (Hepburn)	English Label	Explanation
_	規則適用位置	Kisoku tekiyō ichi	Site of Application	Position where the rule applies (X _ Y). 2
#	語界	Gokai	Word Boundary	Marks the boundary between words.
C	任意の子音	Nin’i no shiin	Consonant	One of the cover symbols.3
V	任意の母音	Nin’i no boin	Vowel	One of the cover symbols.4
{ ... }	特定のセグメントの集合	Tokutei no segumento no shūgō	Set of Specific Segments	For example, the segments in {t, d, n}.
[ ... ]	特徴束	Tokuchō taba	Feature Bundle	For example, [+syllabic] or [-voice].
( ... )	省略可能	Shōryaku kanō	Optional	Parentheses for optional elements.
+	形態素境界	Keitaiso kyōkai	Morpheme Boundary	Boundary inside a word.
##	発話境界	Hatsuwa kyōkai	Utterance Boundary	Boundary at the edge of an utterance.
V́	強勢母音	Kyōsei boin	Stressed Vowel
V̆	無強勢母音	Mukyōsei boin	Unstressed Vowel
N̩	音節的子音	Onsetsuteki shiin	Syllabic Consonant
O	音節頭	Onsetsutō	Onset	One constituent of σ sigma (see below).
N	音節核	Onsetsu kaku	Nucleus	One constituent of σ sigma (see below).
Co	音節末	Onsetsumatsu	Coda	One constituent of σ sigma (see below).
σ sigma	音節	Onsetsu	Syllable
ω omega	韻律語	Inritsugo	Prosodic Word
φ phi	音韻句	On’in ku	Phonological Phrase
ι iota	イントネーション句	Intonēshon ku	Intonational Phrase
μ mu	モーラ	Mōra	Mora	Essential in Japanese pronunciation analysis.
∅	空列（ゼロ音）	Kūretsu (zero-on)	Null / Zero	Used in insertion and deletion rules, e.g. ∅ -> t / V _ V.
α (variable)	アルファ変数	Arufa hensū	Alpha Notation	Shared feature variable, e.g. C -> [αvoice] / _ [αvoice].
.	音節境界	Onsetsu kyōkai	Syllable Boundary	Sometimes used in transcription or environment notation.
R / ρ	ライム(核＋末)	Raimu (kaku + matsu)	Rime	R = N + Coda.
Ft	フット	Futto	Foot	A unit above σ.
U	発話	Hatsuwa	Utterance	A unit above ι; the substance marked by ##.

2. Also used for insertion and deletion.

3. Here, C and V are different from the timing slots of CV terminology. Do not confuse the two.

4. Here, C and V are different from the timing slots of CV terminology. Do not confuse the two.

• 🗣️ A -> B / X _ Y is read as: A becomes B between X and Y.

(Hidden) Terms for Positions of Phonological Change in Rule Notation

Category	Japanese Term	Romaji (Hepburn)	English Label	SPE
Word	語頭	Gotō	Word-initial	# _ / ω[ _
Word	語末	Gomatsu	Word-final	_ # / _ ]ω
Word	語中	Gochū	Word-medial	(no #)
Syllable	音節頭	Onsetsutō	Syllable onset	σ[ _ / O _
Syllable	音節末	Onsetsumatsu	Syllable coda	_ ]σ / _ Co
Segmental	母音間	Boinkan	Intervocalic	V _ V
Segmental	子音間	Shiinkan	Interconsonantal	C _ C
Segmental	母音前	Boin mae	Before a vowel	_ V
Segmental	子音前	Shiin mae	Before a consonant	_ C
Segmental	母音後	Boin go	After a vowel	V _
Segmental	子音後	Shiin go	After a consonant	C _
Morphology / Prosody	語素界	Gosokai	Morpheme boundary	+
Morphology / Prosody	話語界	Wagokai	Utterance boundary	##
Morphology / Prosody	短語頭	Tangotō	Phonological-phrase initial	φ[ _
Morphology / Prosody	短語末	Tangomatsu	Phonological-phrase final	_ ]φ
Morphology / Prosody	語調短語頭	Gochō tangotō	Intonational-phrase initial	ι[ _
Morphology / Prosody	語調短語末	Gochō tangomatsu	Intonational-phrase final	_ ]ι
Stress / Syllabicity	重音後・非重音前	Jūongo hi-jūon mae	After stressed, before unstressed	V́ _ V̆
Stress / Syllabicity	成音節子音前	Seionsetsu shiin mae	Before a syllabic consonant	_ N̩
Sets	音集	Onshū	Set of segments	{...}
Classes	子音	Shiin	Consonant	C
Classes	母音	Boin	Vowel	V

• 🗣️ When you want syllable-initial in prosodic notation, write σ[ _ (not [σ _).
• 🗣️ C/V here are class shorthands, not CV-skeleton timing slots. If you switch to true CV-skeleton talk, use O/N/Co or C/V-slots explicitly.
• 🗣️ For linking/intrusive r in non-rhotic accents, the context is V # V (that is, word-final + word-initial with vowels on both sides).
• 🗣️ Use _ ]σ (or _ Co) for “in coda,” and σ[ _ (or O _) for “in onset.”

–>

Glossary of English Phonetics

Places of Articulation

English Term	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Japanese Explanation
Alveolar	歯茎音	Shikei on	舌を上前歯のすぐ後ろの歯茎に当てて発音する音。例: /t, d, n, s, l/
Dental	歯音	Ha on	舌を歯に当てて発音する音。例: /θ, ð/
Labiodental	唇歯音	Shinshi on	下唇を上の歯に当てて発音する音。例: /f, v/
Velar	軟口蓋音	Nankōgai on	舌の後部を軟口蓋に当てて発音する音。例: /k, g, ŋ/
Glottal	声門音	Seimon on	声門で作られる音。例: [ʔ]（声門閉鎖音）
Retroflex	反り舌音	Sorijita on	舌先を後ろに反らせて口蓋方向に近づけて発音する音。例: [ɻ]
Palatal	硬口蓋音	Kōkōgai on	舌を硬口蓋に近づけて発音する音。例: [j]
Palato-alveolar	歯茎硬口蓋音	Shikei kōkōgai on	舌の中部を歯茎の後ろで硬口蓋寄りに当てて発音する音。例: [tʃ], [dʒ]

Manners of Articulation

English Term	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Japanese Explanation
Stop (Plosive)	破裂音	Haretsu on	息の流れを完全に止めて破裂させて出す音。例: /p, t, k/
Fricative	摩擦音	Masatsu on	狭い隙間を通る息が摩擦して出る音。例: /f, s, θ/
Affricate	破擦音	Hasatsu on	破裂音から摩擦音に移行して発音される音。例: [tʃ], [dʒ]
Nasal	鼻音	Bion	息が鼻から流れて出る音。例: /m, n, ŋ/
Approximant	接近音	Sekkin on	調音器官が接近するが閉鎖や摩擦は起きない、母音に似た子音。例: /l, ɹ, j, w/
Tap/Flap	はじき音	Hajiki on	ごく短い接触で発音される音。例: アメリカ英語 water の [ɾ]
Glottal stop	声門閉鎖音	Seimon heisaon	声門を閉じて発音する音。例: [ʔ]
Vowel	母音	Boin	声道が開いて発音され、音節の核となる音。

Phonological Processes

English Term	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Japanese Explanation
Deletion (∅)	脱落	Daraku	音が発音されなくなる現象。例: h-dropping
Insertion / Epenthetic	挿入（介入音）	Sōnyū (kai’nyū-on)	本来ない音が加えられる現象。例: intrusive r
Assimilation	同化	Dōka	隣接する音に影響されて似た音に変化する現象。例: /t/ -> [t̪]（/θ/ の前）
Vocalization	母音化	Boinka	子音が母音的な音に変化する現象。例: /l/ -> [o]
Palatalization	硬口蓋化	Kōkōgaika	調音位置が硬口蓋寄りに移動する現象。例: /tj/ -> [tʃ]
Cluster simplification	子音連続簡略化	Shiin renzoku kanryakuka	子音の連続が単純化される現象。例: /-st/ -> /-s/

Other Key Terms

English Term	Japanese Name	Romaji (Hepburn)	Japanese Explanation
Voiced	有声	Yūsei	声帯が振動して発音される音。例: /b, d, v/
Voiceless	無声	Musei	声帯が振動しない音。例: /p, t, f/
Rhoticity	R音性	R-onsei	/r/ 音が発音されるかどうかの性質
Linking	リンキング	Rinkingu	語の境界で母音と母音の間に /r/ が挿入される現象
Contrast	対立	Tairitsu	音の違いによって意味が変わる現象。例: witch と which

Table of contents

• Offbeat Count Theory
  • Introduction
  • What Are the Four Principles of Groove
  • Why Are Japanese People Tatenori
  • Which Comes First, the Strong Beat or the Weak Beat
  • Phonorhythmatology
  • A Letter to Mora-Timed Language Speakers
  • Split Beat (Schizorhythmos) and Isolated Beat (Solirhythmos)
  • What Is Metre
  • Multi-Layered Weak-Beat-Oriented Rhythm
  • Multidimensional Division Spaces
  • Rhythm More Important Than Pronunciation
  • The World Is Made of 3⁻ⁿ Metres
  • 3⁻ⁿ Groove and 2⁻ⁿ Groove
  • Distributed Groove Theory
  • Weak-Beat Geocentrism and Strong-Beat Heliocentrism
  • Introduction to Offbeat Count
  • Rhythmochronic Competence and Sense of Rhythm
  • Master English Listening with Offbeat Count
  • Etudes for Mora-Timed Language Speakers
  • Proper English Pronunciation
  • Correct Pronunciation of Offbeat Count
  • Multilayer Weak-Beat-Precedence Polyrhythm
  • The Elements That Shape Rhythmic Nuance
  • The Mechanism by Which Tatenori Arises
  • Tatenori and the Perception of Movement
  • The Psychological Problems Caused by Tatenori